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References

Level: reference · for checking what a claim on the graded pages rests on

One line: The seventy-one papers cited by the guide this library was asked to absorb, each with a link and a note on what kind of study it is, because a meta-analysis of classroom experiments and a study of mice given an amnesia drug do not weigh the same.

The list arrived as a numbered bibliography attached to a guide on learning. The numbers are kept so the guide can be checked against it. The pages in 05_Body_and_Brain cite the ones that bear on a claim; the rest are here so that nothing is silently dropped. The tag after each entry is this library's reading of it: review (systematic review, meta-analysis or handbook chapter), classroom (an experiment or study on students), lab (an experiment on people in a laboratory), animal (rodents or other animals), theory, preprint (not yet peer reviewed), correction (an erratum, not a finding), off-topic (not about learning, or not recoverable from the citation).

Study techniques

  • [2] Donoghue and Hattie, "A meta-analysis of ten learning techniques", Frontiers in Education 6 (2021), doi:10.3389/feduc.2021.581216 ↗. review. The ranking behind how memory works.
  • [3] Chen, Paas and Sweller, "Spacing and interleaving effects require distinct theoretical bases", Educational Psychology Review 33 (2021), doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09613-w ↗. review. Spacing restores working memory; interleaving works by discriminative contrast.
  • [4] Dobson, "Applying retrieval and distributed practices to enhance student learning and achievement in a university course", Advances in Physiology Education (2025), doi:10.1152/advan.00173.2025 ↗. classroom.
  • [5] Biwer, oude Egbrink, Aalten and de Bruin, "Fostering effective learning strategies in higher education", Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition 9 (2020), doi:10.1016/j.jarmac.2020.03.004 ↗. classroom. Teaching students to choose desirable difficulties.
  • [6] Van Hoof, Madan and Sumeracki, "Science of Learning Strategy Series: Article 2, Retrieval Practice", Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions 41 (2021), doi:10.1097/CEH.0000000000000335 ↗. review.
  • [7] "Investigating the effectiveness of cognitive learning strategies for learners: a meta-analysis", International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research 5 (2023), doi:10.36948/ijfmr.2023.v05i02.2817 ↗. review, in a journal with light review; the effect sizes it reports (0.85–1.74) are larger than the established literature's and should not be quoted on their own.
  • [8] Hintzman, "Theoretical implications of the spacing effect" (1974), chapter ↗. theory. The classic account.
  • [11] Zheng, Sun and Liu, "Retrieval practice is costly and is beneficial only when working memory capacity is abundant", npj Science of Learning (2023), doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00159-w ↗. lab. [14] is its publisher correction, doi:10.1038/s41539-023-00185-8 ↗. correction.
  • [12] Agarwal, Nunes and Blunt, "Retrieval practice consistently benefits student learning: a systematic review of applied research in schools and classrooms", Educational Psychology Review 33 (2021), doi:10.1007/s10648-021-09595-9 ↗. review. The strongest single source on the top row of the evidence table.
  • [13] Caplan and Guitard, "Spaced repetition and list-strength in recognition memory", Memory & Cognition (2026), doi:10.3758/s13421-026-01875-5 ↗. lab. A technical result about recognition memory; not a basis for study advice.
  • [15] "Enhancing learning and retention through the distribution of practice repetitions across multiple sessions" (2022), doi:10.31234/osf.io/dmf4p ↗. preprint. Retention tracks the number of sessions an item appears in.
  • [16] McLane and Selmeczy, "Children's retrieval of science facts: the role of hints and confidence", Memory (2025), doi:10.1080/09658211.2024.2406312 ↗. lab, with children.
  • [17] Shi and Liu, "Learning from mistakes: objective and subjective error magnitudes predict the testing effect", Psychonomic Bulletin & Review (2026), doi:10.3758/s13423-026-03009-z ↗. lab.
  • [18] Kliegl, Bjork and Bäuml, "Feedback at test can reverse the retrieval-effort effect", Frontiers in Psychology (2019), doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01863 ↗. lab.
  • [19] Xu and colleagues, "The impact of study and learning strategies on post-secondary student academic achievement: a mixed-methods systematic review", doi:10.31234/osf.io/7ng5y ↗. preprint, review.
  • [23] Nelson and Eliasz, "Desirable difficulty: theory and application of intentionally challenging learning", Medical Education 57 (2022), doi:10.1111/medu.14916 ↗. review.
  • [25] Gordon and Lowry, "Fostering retention of word learning", Journal of Child Language (2024), doi:10.1017/S0305000923000752 ↗. lab, with children; more retrieval sessions, better retention.
  • [28] Rea, Wang, Muenks and Yan, "Students can (mostly) recognize effective learning, so why do they not do it?", Journal of Intelligence 10 (2022), doi:10.3390/jintelligence10040127 ↗. classroom. Self-efficacy and habit, not information, are the gap.
  • [29] Bosch and Spinath, "What evidence-based learning activities help students acquire knowledge, correct confidence in their own knowledge, and accurate self-assessment?", Learning and Individual Differences (2023), doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102374 ↗. classroom. Calibration, as in metacognition.
  • [30] Stanton, Sebesta and Dunlosky, "Fostering metacognition to support student learning and performance", CBE—Life Sciences Education 20 (2021), doi:10.1187/cbe.20-12-0289 ↗. review.
  • [31] Van Hoof, Sumeracki and Madan, "Science of Learning Strategy Series: Article 1, Distributed Practice", JCEHP 41 (2021), doi:10.1097/CEH.0000000000000315 ↗. review.
  • [32] Van Hoof, Sumeracki, Madan and Meehan, "Science of Learning Strategy Series: Article 6, Elaboration", JCEHP (2024), doi:10.1097/ceh.0000000000000580 ↗. review.
  • [33] Karpicke and O'Day, "Elements of effective learning", Oxford Handbook of Human Memory (2024), doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190917982.013.70 ↗. review.
  • [34] Wolf and Kluge, "Commentary: Retrieval practice protects memory against acute stress", Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience (2017), doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2017.00048 ↗. commentary on Smith and colleagues (2016).
  • [35] Sale, "Towards an evidence-based pedagogic literacy: the core principles of learning", in Creative Teachers (2020), doi:10.1007/978-981-15-3469-0_2 ↗. review, for teachers.
  • [37] Doolittle and Byrnes, "Cognition and learning", in a 2023 handbook, doi:10.1002/9781119852865.ch3 ↗. review.
  • [38] Wen, Juffs and Winke, "Measuring working memory", in a 2020 handbook, doi:10.4324/9781351034784-19 ↗. review, on measurement.
  • [1] "Optimizing memory in non-traditional settings with evidence-based learning strategies" (Geneva, 2025), doi:10.13097/archive-ouverte/unige:186622 ↗. thesis.

AI and tools

  • [9] Karrar, Abdelrady and Ibrahim, "Automating language input: AI-generated contextual flashcards delivered via Anki", Frontiers in Education (2026), doi:10.3389/feduc.2026.1862047 ↗. classroom, language learners.
  • [10] Baillifard, Gabella, Lavenex and Martarelli, "Implementing learning principles with a personal AI tutor: a case study", arXiv (2023), doi:10.48550/arxiv.2309.13060 ↗. preprint, case study.

Memory and the brain, in people or in theory

  • [47] Gholston and Chiew, "Contributions of transient and sustained reward to memory formation", Psychological Research (2023), doi:10.1007/s00426-023-01829-5 ↗. lab.
  • [49] Gruber and Ranganath, "How curiosity enhances hippocampus-dependent memory" (2019), doi:10.31219/osf.io/5v6nm ↗. preprint, review of their own and others' human studies.
  • [56] Clos, Bunzeck and Sommer, "Dopamine enhances item novelty detection via hippocampal and associative recall via left lateral prefrontal cortex mechanisms", Journal of Neuroscience 39 (2019), doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0495-19.2019 ↗. lab, levodopa in healthy people.
  • [64] Duncan and Shohamy, "Dopamine and learning", Oxford Handbook of Human Memory (2024), doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190917982.013.24 ↗. review.
  • [66] Decker and Duncan, "Acetylcholine and the complex interdependence of memory and attention", Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 32 (2020), doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.01.013 ↗. review.
  • [67] Kourosh-Arami, Komaki and Zarrindast, "Dopamine as a potential target for learning and memory", CNS & Neurological Disorders – Drug Targets 22 (2022), doi:10.2174/1871527321666220418115503 ↗. review, pharmacological.
  • [70] Sun, Advani, Spruston, Saxe and Fitzgerald, "Organizing memories for generalization in complementary learning systems", Nature Neuroscience 26 (2023), doi:10.1038/s41593-023-01382-9 ↗. theory, computational model of systems consolidation.
  • [71] Slater, Liu, Weiss, Yu and Wang, "The neuromodulatory role of the noradrenergic and cholinergic systems and their interplay in cognitive functions", Brain Sciences 12 (2022), doi:10.3390/brainsci12070890 ↗. review.
  • [69] Sardoo, Zhang, Ferraro, Keck and Chen, "Decoding brain memory formation by single-cell RNA sequencing", Briefings in Bioinformatics 23 (2022), doi:10.1093/bib/bbac412 ↗. review, molecular.
  • [46] Ferreri and colleagues, "Dopaminergic signalling modulates reward-driven music memory consolidation", bioRxiv (2020), doi:10.1101/2020.04.01.020305 ↗. preprint, lab.
  • [48] Li, Liu, Li and Zhou, "Effects of exercise on proactive interference in memory", Psychopharmacology 237 (2020), doi:10.1007/s00213-020-05554-4 ↗. review, people and animals.
  • [58] Amico, Braun and Schaefer, "Can acute resistance exercise facilitate episodic memory encoding?", Current Psychology (2021), doi:10.1007/s12144-021-02352-9 ↗. lab. A small effect at most.
  • [42] Becker and Mills, "Cognitive enhancement: effects of methylphenidate, modafinil, and caffeine on latent memory and resting state functional connectivity in healthy adults", Human Brain Mapping 43 (2022), doi:10.1002/hbm.25949 ↗. lab.
  • [65] Gonzalez, Rossato, Radiske, Bevilaqua and Cammarota, "Dopamine controls whether new declarative information updates reactivated memories through reconsolidation", PNAS 118 (2021), doi:10.1073/pnas.2025275118 ↗. animal (rats), on reconsolidation.

Animal and cell studies

These support mechanisms named on brain chemistry and nothing a learner can act on.

  • [36] Berdugo-Vega and colleagues, author correction to "Increasing neurogenesis refines hippocampal activity...", Nature Communications (2020), doi:10.1038/s41467-020-14935-4 ↗. correction to an animal study (mice).
  • [40] Bali, Bruszt, Tadepalli and Csurgyók, on memantine and an alpha7 nicotinic agonist in scopolamine-induced amnesia, Frontiers in Pharmacology (2019), doi:10.3389/fphar.2019.00073 ↗. animal (rats).
  • [41] Hong and colleagues, "A mixture of Ginkgo biloba leaf and Hericium erinaceus fruit extract attenuates scopolamine-induced memory impairments in mice", Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity (2022), doi:10.1155/2022/9973678 ↗. animal (mice with drug-induced amnesia).
  • [43] "A study of fresh fruit juice of Malus domestica × M. sylvestris against experimentally induced Alzheimer's disease in mice" (2021), doi:10.47583/IJPSRR.2021.V67I01.002 ↗. animal (mice); the source of the "green apple" claim.
  • [44] Bubser and colleagues, "Selective activation of M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors reverses MK-801-induced behavioral impairments", ACS Chemical Neuroscience (2014), doi:10.1021/cn500128b ↗. animal (rodents).
  • [45] Tse and colleagues, "Cell-type-specific optogenetic stimulation of the locus coeruleus induces slow-onset potentiation and enhances everyday memory in rats", PNAS 120 (2023), doi:10.1073/pnas.2307275120 ↗. animal (rats).
  • [50] Chaby and colleagues, "Cognitive flexibility training improves extinction retention memory and enhances cortical dopamine", Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience 13 (2019), doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00024 ↗. animal (rats).
  • [53] Liu and colleagues, "Polydopamine nanoparticles restore cognition via targeted dopamine delivery", Theranostics (2026), doi:10.7150/thno.121735 ↗. animal (mice).
  • [57] Proshin, Zakharova, Dudchenko and Pertsov, on dihydrexidine and memory in rats, Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine 179 (2025), doi:10.47056/0365-9615-2025-179-4-415-419 ↗. animal (rats).
  • [59] Wolter and colleagues, "Memory enhancing effects of nicotine, cocaine, and their conditioned stimuli", Psychopharmacology 238 (2021), doi:10.1007/s00213-021-05884-x ↗. animal (rats).
  • [60] Bava, Wang, Bick, Englot and Constantinidis, "Improving visual working memory with cholinergic deep brain stimulation", Brain Sciences 13 (2023), doi:10.3390/brainsci13060917 ↗. animal (monkeys).
  • [61] Sagheddu and colleagues, on the putative enhancer (S)-CE-123, Biomolecules 10 (2020), doi:10.3390/biom10050779 ↗. animal (rats).
  • [68] Nagy and colleagues, "Cellular mechanisms of cognitive enhancement: memantine and alpha7 nicotinic ligands in rat hippocampal neurons", ASN Neuro 16 (2024), doi:10.1080/17590914.2024.2371160 ↗. animal (rats).

Cognitive enhancers: reviews and ethics

  • [51] Malik and Tlustoš, "Nootropics as cognitive enhancers: types, dosage and side effects of smart drugs", Nutrients 14 (2022), doi:10.3390/nu14163367 ↗. review. Broad; read its human-evidence sections with care.
  • [52] Schifano, Catalani, Sharif and Napoletano, "Benefits and harms of 'smart drugs' (nootropics) in healthy individuals", Drugs (2022), doi:10.1007/s40265-022-01701-7 ↗. review.
  • [62] Kapur, "Is methylphenidate beneficial and safe in pharmacological cognitive enhancement?", CNS Drugs 34 (2020), doi:10.1007/s40263-020-00758-w ↗. review.
  • [63] Sharif, Guirguis, Fergus and Schifano, "The use and impact of cognitive enhancers among university students: a systematic review", Brain Sciences 11 (2021), doi:10.3390/brainsci11030355 ↗. review.
  • [39] Lopes and Stancioli, "From the necessity of being human to the possibility of pursuing a good life: cognitive enhancement and the emergence of personhood", Ethic@ 20 (2021), doi:10.5007/1677-2954.2021.E80030 ↗. philosophy; cited in the guide for drug effects, which it does not study.

Not about learners, or not recoverable

  • [20] "The effect of learning strategy and cognitive style on students' narrative writing ability", English Review 10 (2022), doi:10.25134/erjee.v10i2.6278 ↗. classroom, language writing; not about the claims it was cited for.
  • [21] de Andrade and colleagues, "Promoção de estratégias de aprendizagem em estudantes de psicologia", Psicologia Escolar e Educacional 24 (2020), doi:10.1590/2175-35392020212962 ↗. classroom, a strategy-teaching programme.
  • [22] Kovner, Mattis and Goldmeier, "A technique for promoting robust free recall in chronic organic amnesia", Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology (1983), doi:10.1080/01688638308401151 ↗. clinical, amnesic patients; cited in the guide for sleep, which it is not about.
  • [24] Paniagua, Epiquén and Gago, on a "Learning to Learn" module for university students, Revista Brasileira de Educação do Campo 5 (2020), doi:10.20873/UFT.RBEC.E7967 ↗. classroom.
  • [26] Baharun, Hanifansyah and Atiyah, "A cross-cultural psycholinguistic study on Arabic vocabulary retention", Arabiyat (2025), doi:10.15408/a.v12i2.46704 ↗. classroom, vocabulary; cited in the guide for sleep, which it is not about.
  • [27] Ramos, "Aplicação da análise cognitiva na aprendizagem", Revista Acadêmica Online 10 (2024), doi:10.36238/2359-5787.2024.v10n53.219 ↗. essay.
  • [54] Rodríguez, Pensar la Educación desde el cerebro (2023), doi:10.46498/upelipb.lib.0021 ↗. book, in Spanish, on education and the brain; the guide's source for several neurotransmitter sentences.
  • [55] "Exploring the influence of cholinergic modulation on hippocampal activity and memory abilities" (2024), doi:10.5281/zenodo.11060163 ↗. preprint on Zenodo, author not given.

What the sorting shows

Of seventy-one entries, about twenty-five are reviews or classroom studies on the techniques in chapters 01 to 04, and they agree with those chapters. Thirteen are animal or cell studies, which is where nearly every sentence in the guide about neurotransmitters, supplements and "priming" comes from. Six are preprints or corrections, and eight are not about the claim they were attached to. That distribution is the reason 05_Body_and_Brain grades every claim: the guide's confident tone was the same in every section, and its evidence was not.